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Turc ottoman

Le turc ottoman, turc osmanlı ou turc ancien (en turc ottoman لسان تركى Lisân-ı Türkî ; تركى Türkî ; لسان عثمانى, Lisân-ı Osmânî ; تركچه Türkçe) était la langue officielle de l'Empire ottoman. Son caractère officiel de langue de l'État était fixé par l’article 8 de la constitution de 1876[1] jusqu'aux réformes linguistiques menées par Mustafa Kemal Atatürk après 1923, après la disparition de cet Empire. Le turc osmanli s'écrit avec une version adaptée de l'alphabet arabe, et se caractérise par une proportion importante de termes venant de l'arabe ou du persan.

Turc ottoman
لسان عثمانى
Lisân-ı Osmânî
Osmanlı türkçesi
Langues filles Turc
Pays Empire ottoman
Typologie SOV agglutinante
Classification par famille
Statut officiel
Langue officielle Drapeau de l'Empire ottoman Empire ottoman
Codes de langue
IETF ota
ISO 639-2 ota
ISO 639-3 ota
Étendue Langue individuelle
Type Langue historique
Glottolog otto1234
Échantillon

پاَدِ شَاهِمْ چُوقْ يَشَا

سَلْطَنَتْ؛ الله ذُوالْجِلاَلِڭ تَنْوِيرِ عُقُولْ، تَهْذِيبِ نُفُوسْ و تَعْدِيلِ حَرِكَاتْ و اَعْمَالْ ايچُونْ تَشْرِيعْ بُيُورْدِيغى اَحْكَامْ و قَوَانِينِ قُرْآنْ و سُنَّتْ اَحْمَدِيِّه دَنْ اِسْتِنْبَاطَه اِقْتِدَارْ حَاصِلْ ايتْدِكْدَنْ صُوكْرَه اِنْفَاذْ ديمَكْدِرْ.

قُوِّهُ رُوحَانِيِّه و جِسْمَانِيِّه يى يَدِ وَاحِدده جَمْعْ ايدَنْ بُويْله بِرْ رِيَاسَتْ صَاحِبِنه سُلْطَانْ، اِمَامْ و خَلِيفه دِينُورْ. بِنَاءً عَلَيْه سُلْطَانْ يَاخُودْ اِمَامْ يَاخُودْ خَلِفه بَاطِنًا اَحْكَامِ شَرِيعَتِڭ حَقَائِقَنه وَاقِفْ و ظَاهِرًا اِنْفَاذِنه مَاْمُورْ اولاَنْ ذَاتِ جَلِيلُ الْمَقَامْدِرْ.

Atatürk a ensuite fait adopter l'alphabet latin pour écrire le turc et a encouragé les travaux visant à remplacer les mots arabes ou persans par des néologismes d'origine turque.

Grammaire

La grammaire du turc ottoman n'est pas différente de celle du turc moderne.

Les temps et modes

Le turc connaît plusieurs temps et modes.

Il existe deux groupes de verbes selon l'harmonie vocalique : les verbes composés de voyelles antérieures terminés en -mek (مك-) et les verbes composés de voyelles postérieures terminés en -mak (مق-).

Forme temporelle/modale Suffixe latin Suffixe ottoman
Progressif -mekte / -makta مقده / -مكده-
Nécessitatif -meli / -malı ملو- (-melü / -malu)
Aoriste positif -(e/i)r / -(a/ı)r ه)ر)-
Aoriste négatif -mez / -maz مز-
Impossibilité -eme / -ama ه مه-
Futur -(y)ecek / -(y)acak ه جق / -ه جك-
Passé non constaté -miş مش-
Présent continu -iyor يور-
Passé constaté -di (forme pleine : idi) (ايدى) دى-
Conditionnel -se (forme pleine : ise) (ايسه) سه-

Les terminaisons de personnes

...

Les déclinaisons

Le turc connaît des déclinaisons pour les noms et les pronoms et non pas pour les adjectifs comme dans beaucoup d'autres langues.

Déclinaison des noms
Cas ev (maison) او adam (homme) ادم
Nom TerminaisonLatin Ottoman TraductionLatin OttomanTraduction
Absolu - ev او maison (sujet ou objet indéfini)adam ادمhomme (sujet ou objet indéfini)
Accusatif -i (ى) evi اوى la maison (objet défini)adamı ادمىhomme (objet défini)
Datif -e (ه) eve اوه vers la maisonadama ادمهvers l'homme
Locatif -de/da (ده) evde اوده dans la maisonadamda ادمدهdans l'homme
Ablatif -den/dan (دن) evden اودن depuis la maisonadamdan ادمدنdepuis l'homme
Génitif -(n)in (نڭ) evin اوڭ appartenant à la maisonadamın ادمڭappartenant à l'homme
Instrumental -(y)le/(y)la / ile (ايله) evle (او ايله) اوله avec la maisonadamla (ادم ايله) ادملهavec l'homme

Le suffixe de pluriel -ler/-lar (لر-) est le premier à s'ajouter au nom. La déclinaison reste régulière ensuite : اولرى pour dire « les maisons » en tant qu'objet défini. Par exemple : اولرى گوريورم (evleri görüyorum) Je vois les maisons.

Déclinaison des pronoms personnels
Cas Singulier Pluriel
Première Deuxième Troisième Première Deuxième Troisième
Absolu ben بنsen سنo اوbiz بزsiz سزonlar اونلر
Accusatif beni بنىseni سنىonu اونىbizi بزىsizi سزىonları اونلرى
Datif bana بڭاsana سڭاona اونهbize بزهsize سزهonlara اونلره
Locatif bende بندهsende سندهonda اوندهbizde بزدهsizde سزدهonlarda اونلرده
Ablatif benden بندنsenden سندنondan اوندنbizden بزدنsizden سزدنonlardan اونلردن
Génitif benim بنمsenin سنڭonun اونڭbizim بزمsizin سزڭonların اونلرڭ
Instrumental benimle (بنم ايله) بنملهseninle (سنڭ ايله) سنڭلهonunla (اونڭ ايله) اونڭلهbizimle (بزم ايله) بزملهsizinle (سزڭ ايله) سزڭلهonlarla (اونلر ايله) اونلرله

L'expression de la possession

La grammaire du turc ottoman gardait les traits turciques originels à quoi s'ajoutaient des éléments des grammaires arabe et persane. Ainsi, il existe deux manières d'exprimer la possession en turc ottoman.

La possession turcique

Pour exprimer la possession, le turc ottoman et le turc actuel ont conservé un système en deux parties formé par l'utilisation du génitif sur l'élément possesseur et du possessif sur l'élément possédé. Le possesseur vient avant le possédé dans la phrase turque, ce qui est une inversion par rapport au système français.

Première personne du singulier Deuxième personne du singulier Troisième personne du singulier Première personne du pluriel Deuxième personne du pluriel Troisième personne du pluriel
Génitif ben-im بنمsen-in سنڭo-nun اونڭbiz-im بزمsiz-in سزڭonlar-ın اونلرڭ
Possessif -(i)m م- -(i)n ڭ- -(s)i سى- -(i)miz مز- -(i)niz ڭز- -leri/-ları لرى-
Exemple (chat: kedi كدى) benim kedim بنم كديم senin kedin سنڭ كديڭ onun kedisi اونڭ كديسى bizim kedimiz بزم كديمز sizin kediniz سزڭ كديڭز onların kedileri اونلرڭ كديلرى

Il est aussi possible de créer des groupes possessifs indéfinis avec la troisième personne du singulier construit avec un possédant au cas absolu et un possédé au possessif. Ces groupes permettent de créer des types d'objet particuliers qui sont inséparables : Osmanlı Devleti عثمانلى دولتى « État ottoman », güneş gözlüğü گونش گوزلگى « lunettes de soleil » (et non pas les lunettes appartenant au soleil).

La possession persane - l'utilisation de l'ezafe

Le système de l'ezafe était connu du turc ottoman. Contrairement au système de possession turcique, la construction se fait avec le possédé précédant le possesseur avec une liaison par un -i (-u/-ü/-ı selon l'harmonie vocalique).

Considéré comme littéraire, son utilisation était abondante dans les écrits et dénominations officielles :

  • la Sublime porte se dit بابِ عالى Bab-ı ali
  • l'Empire ottoman s'appelait دولت عليه عثمانيه Devlet-i aliye-i Osmaniye

Il était généralement rendu par une kasra ou une hamza lorsque le mot se terminait par un he, un vav ou un ye mais les diacritiques n'étaient pas toujours apparentes et la connexion par l'ezafe se devinait du contexte (cf. Empire ottoman ci-dessus).

Registres de langue

Selon le contexte d'utilisation, il peut exister au moins trois registres de langues :

  • Fasih türkçe (turc formel) : langue de l’administration et de la poésie,
  • Orta türkçe (turc moyen) : langue du commerce et des classes sociales supérieures,
  • Kaba türkçe (turc vulgaire) : langue familière.

Abandon du turc ottoman et remplacement du lexique arabo-persan

Les emprunts à l'arabe


* Anciens mots toujours utilisés avec le néologisme aujourd'hui.
** Néologismes moins employés que les emprunts.

Mot ottoman Romanisation Néologisme Signification Remarque
عفو ايتمك ʻafu itmek*affetmek bağışlamakpardonner Du persan bağışla– "à pardonner"[2]
أخلاق ahlak*ahlak töretradition De le nom de l'ancien turc töre "tradition coutumière"[2]
ʻaile*aile ocak**famille De le nom de l'ancien turc ocak "famille"[2]
عقبة akabe*akabe geçitpassage Depuis la racine geç– "passer"[2]
عقد ʻaqd*, مقاولة mukâveleakit, mukavele sözleşme, anlaşma, bağıtcontrat Depuis l'ancien turc söz "mot"[2]
عقل ʻaql*akıl us**sagesse Depuis le nom de l'ancien turc us "intelligence"[2]
علاقة ʻalaqe*alaka(lı) ilgi(li)lié à, pertinent Depuis la racine de l'ancien turc il– "attacher lâchement" et "toucher"[2]
علامة alamet*alamet önseziprémonition Depuis l'adjetif ön "avant"[2]
عمة amme*amme sargıbandage Depuis la racine sar– "enrouler"[2]
عامل ʻâmilamil etkenfacteur Depuis la racine et– "faire"[2]
عملية ʻamaliyyahameliye işlemopération, processus Depuis la racine işle– "travailler"[2]
عامة ammeamme kamupublic, communauté Depuis l'adjectif du persan moyen "kamu" "tous"[2]
عمودي amudi*amudi dikeyperpendiculaire ; survit dans amuda kalkmak. Depuis la racine dik– "planter"[2]
عنعنة a'naneanane gelenek, görenektradition Crée par İsmet İnönü en 1947, depuis la racine gel– "venir"[2]
عنغنوي ananevi*ananevi gelenekseltraditionnel Crée par İsmet İnönü en 1947, depuis la racine gel– "venir"[2]
عساكر asakir*asker **, çeri**soldat Les mots turcs sont utilisés dans des contextes précis comme subay, "officier" etyeniçeri "janissaire".
عصر asr*asır yüzyılsiècle Un mot composé formé par yüz "cent" et yıl "and". Le néologisme ne garde pas la distinction entre "siècle" et "cent ans". La distinction est parfois importante: Parlant en 2020, "yedi asır kadar önce" (quelques sept siècles auparavant) a une marge d'erreur de 60 ou 70 ans et peut faire référence à une date entre 1260 et 1380 alors que "yedi yüzyıl kadar önce" fait forcément référence à 1320.
بارز bâriz*bariz kesin, belliévident Depuis la racine kes– "couper"[2]
بسيط basîṭ*basit kolaysimple, facile Depuis le nom kol "bras"[2]
بعض bazı*bazı kimiquelques
بداهة bedāhet)*bedahet hazırcevaplıkquick wit
بشرية beşeriyyet*beşeriyet insanlıkhumanité
أبيض abyâz*beyaz akblanc Le mot arabe et le mot turc sont utilisés dans des contextes légérement différents : "beyaz" se traduit par "clair" or "propre / blanchit"
جمعة camiʻah*camîa toplulukcommunauté Depuis l'adjectif toplu "collectif"[2]
جبراً cebrencebren zorlaforcefully Depuis l'adjectif zor– "difficile"[2]
جلسة calsah*celse oturumaudition Depuis la racine otur– "s'asseoir"[2]
جماعة cemaat*cemaat kurultaysociété Depuis le mongol kurilta "assemblé des nobles"[2]
جمعية cemiyet*cemiyet toplumsociété Depuis l'adjectif toplu "collectif"[2]
جنوب cenûbcenup güneysud Depuis l'ancien turc Gün "soleil" ou "jour", conservé dans certains dialectes anatoliens pour dire "endroit ensoleillé"[2]
جرحة cerahahcerahat irinpus
جريان cereyan*cereyan akımcourant Depuis la racine ak– "couler"[2]
جواب cevâb*cevap yanıtréponse Depuis le nom de l'ancien turc yanut.[2]
جهاز cihaz*cihaz aygıtapparat
جواري civarı*civarı dolaylarıà peu près
جملة cümle*cümle tümce**phrase Depuis le nom tüm "tous, entier"[2]
دفعة defʻa*, کره kere*defa, kere kezfois defa et kere sont encore utilisé communément.
دفينة define*define gömütrésor Depuis la racine göm– "enterrer"
دليل delil*delil kanıtpreuve
دور devr*devir çağère Borrowed from Mongolian, which itself is from Old Turkic çak.[2]
دورة devre*devre dönemsemestre From the root dön– "to turn."[2]
أبعاد ebʻâd*ebat boyutdimension, taille From the Arabic buʻd.
أبدي ebedî*ebedî sonsuztoujours The Turkish word literally means "without-end."
أجداد ecdâdecdat ataancêtre The Turkish word literally means "father."
أجل ecel*ecel ölümmort From the root öl– "to die."
أجنبي acnebi*ecnebi el, yadétranger
أدبيات edebiyyat*edebiyat yazın**littérature From the root yaz– "to write."
أهميات ehemmiyyetehemmiyet önemimportance
ألبسة elbise*elbise giysivêtement From the root giy– "to wear."
أمر emr*emir buyrukordre From the Old Turkic noun buyruk.[2]
amniyyah*emniyet güvenliksécurité From the noun güven "trust."
أثر eser*eser yapıtproduction (musique, film) From the root yap– "to make."[2]
أسير esîr*esir tutsakotage From the root tut– "to hold."[2]
أطراف etraf*etraf ortalıkalentours From the adjective orta "middle."[2]
أوراق evrâk*evrak belgedocument In Arabic, evrāk is the plural of vārāk; in modern Turkish, evrak is used as often a singular, although it should be used as a plural of varak.
أول evvel*evvel önceavant Using the adjective ön "front" as a prefix.
فعال faʻâl*faal etkinactif From the root et– "to do."
فائز faiz*faiz ürem**, getiriintérêt From the root ür– "to produce."
فقير، فقرة fakir, fukara*fakir yoksulpauvre From the root yok– "to not exist."
فرض farz*farz varsayımsupposition From the root varsay– "to suppose."[2]
فايدة fâydah*fayda yararbénéfique, utile
فن fenn*, علم ʻilm*fen, ilim bilimscience From the root bil– "to know."
فيضان feyezanfeyezan taşkıncourant From the root taş– "to overflow."[2]
فرقة fırka*fırka toplulukgroupe From the adjective toplu "collective."[2]
فرقة furqahfırkat ayrılıkdisparité From the Old Turkic root ayr– "to separate."[2]
فكر fikr*fikir görüşopinion From the root gör– "to see."
فعل fiʻl*fiil eylemverbe From the root ey– "to do."
غرب garbgarp batıouest From the root bat– "to sink."
غير gayrgayri olmayan, başka, dışınon-, autre
غذاء gıda*gıda besinnourriture
حادثة hadise*hadise olayévènement From the root ol-, meaning "to be", "to become"[2].
حافظة hâfıza*hafıza bellekmémoire The new word is commonly used in electronics, like computer memory, i.e. önbellek for cache
خفيف hafif*hafif yeğni**léger The Turkish word is rarely used.
حفريات hafriyyâthafriyat kazıexcavation From the root kaz-, meaning "to dig"[2].
حق haqq*hak payportion
حقيقة haqîqat*hakikat gerçekvérité
حاكم hâkim*hâkim yargıçjuge
حال hâl*, وضعية vazʻiyet*hâl, vaziyet durumsituation From the root dur– "to halt."[2]
خليطة halîtahalita alaşımalloy
haʻmile*hamile gebeenceinte
خراب harâb*harap yıkıkruine From the root yık– "to destroy."[2]
حرارة harâret*hararet ısı, sıcaklıktempérature The old word can be used in both meanings in Turkish language.
حركة harekkat*hareket devinim**mouvement
حرف harf*harf ses, imce**lettre From the Old Turkic noun ses– "to voice."[2]
حسرة hasra*hasret özlemmélancolie
حساس hassas*hassas duyarlısensible From the root duy– "to feel."[2]
حشرة haşara*haşere böcekinsecte
خطأ hatâ*, قصور kusûr*hata, kusur yanlışerreur
حطب hatbhatab odunbois
ﺧﻄﻮﺍﺕ ḫaṭavāthatavat adımlarsteps
خاطرة hâtıra*hatıra anımemoir From the root an– "to call to mind."[2]
حياة hayât*, عمر ömr*hayat, ömür yaşam, dirim**life From the root yaşa– "to live."
حيثية haysiyyet*haysiyet saygınlıkrespectability From the root say– "to count."[2]
حزم hazm*hazım sindirimdigestion
هدية hediyye*hediye armağangift
هيئة hey'et*heyet kurulboard (company) From the root kur– "to set up."[2]
حدة hiddet*hiddet kızgınlık, öfkeanger
حكاية hikâye*hikâye öyküstory Neologism coined by Nurullah Ataç[2].
خلاف hilâfhilaf karşıtcontrary From the noun karşı "opposite."
حس his*his duygufeeling From the root duy– "to feel."
خواجه hôca*hoca öğretmenteacher From the root 'öğret-, meaning "to teach".
حدود hudut*hudut sınırborder. Sınır is a Greek borrowing[2].
حقوق hukuk*hukuk tüze**(judiciary) law From the Old Turkic root tuz– "to command."[2]
خلاصة hulasa*hulasa özetsummary
خصوص husûs*husus konusubject Coined in 1935 from the root kon– "to be placed."[2]
حضور huzûr*huzur dirlik**comfort
حجرة hucre*hücre göze**cell
هجوم hücûm*hücum saldırıattack From the root saldır– "to attack."[2]
حرمة hürmet*hürmet saygırespect From the root say– "to count."[2]
إرثية ırsiyet*ırsiyet kalıtımheredity From the root kal– "to remain."[2]
إصرار ısrar*ısrar üstelemeinsisting From the adjective üst "above."
إصطلاح ıstılah*ıstılah terimterm Borrowed from Persian[2].
إجتماع içtimaiçtima kavuşumnew moon (astronomy)
إجتماعي ictimaiiçtimai toplumsalcommunal From the adjective toplu "collective."[2]
إدارة idare*idare yönetimadministration From the root yönet– "to give direction ."[2]
إدرار idrar*idrar sidikurine The original meaning of the Arabic word is "the action of yielding milk". The Turkish word is derived from an old Turkic verb siymek, meaning "to urinate".
إفادة ifade*ifade anlatımnarration From the root anlat– "to explain."
إفتخار iftihâr*iftihar övünmepride From the root öv– "to praise."
إحتراس ihtiras*ihtiras tutkupassion From the root tut– "to hold."
إحتواء ihtivaihtiva etmek içermekto comprise From the adjective "inside."
إحتياج ihtiyâc *ihtiyaç gereksinme, gereksinimneed iħtiyāj is an Arabic verbal-noun form of iħtāj, meaning "need"
إختيار ihtiyâr*ihtiyar yaşlıold (age) From the noun yaş "age."
إحتياط ihtiyâtihtiyat yedekbackup, spare
إحتياط ihtiyatlı*ihtiyatlı uyanıkwide-awake From the root uyan– "to arouse."
إقتباس iktibasiktibas alıntıcopying (in literature; referencing) From the root al– "to take"
آلهة ilahe*ilahe tanrıçagoddess Tanrı (God) + –ça of Serbo-Croatian Serbo-Croat supplied the feminine suffix, –ça, which Turkish lacked.
علاوة ilave*ilave ekaddition
إلهام ilhâm*ilham esininspiration
عمار ʻimâr*imar bayındırlıkconstruction, development
إمكان imkân*imkân olanakopportunity, possibility From the root ol– "to exist."[2]
إملاء imlâ*imla yazımorthography From the root yaz– "to write."[2]
إمتداد imtidad*imtidad uzayspace From the root uza– "to extend."[2]
إمتحان imtihânimtihan sınav, yazılıexamination From the Tatar root sına– "to test."
امتياز imtiyâz*imtiyaz ayrıcalık"to write." From the adjective ayrı "separate."
انحسار inhisârinhisar tekelmonopoly Ömer Asım Aksoy coined from tekel "single hand."[2]
انسان insân*insan kul**human The new word is used almost only in religious context.
انطباع intibaintiba izlenimimpression
انتخاب intihab*intihab seçimelection From the root seç– "to choose."
انتحال intihalintihal aşırmaplagiarism From the root aşır– "to steal."
ابتدائی ibtidâ‘îiptidai ilkelprimary; primitive From the word ilk "first."
ارتفاع irtifâʻ*irtifa yükseklikaltitude The old word is only used in aviation, as in "the altitude of the plane".
ارثی irsî*ırsi kalıtsal, kalıtımsalhereditary From the root kal– "to remain."
اسم ism*isim adname
اِسْكَانْ iskan*iskan konutabode From the root kon– "to settle."[2]
اِسْتِخْدَامْ istihdam*istihdam dağıtımdistribution From the root dağıt– "to distribute."[2]
إستحصال istiḥṣālistihsal üretimproduction From the root üret– "to produce."[2]
استقامت istikamet*istikamet yöndirection
إستقلال istiqlal*istiklal bağımsızlıkindependence, freedom From the noun bağ "tie, bond, impediment."[2]
استراحة istirâhat*istirahat dinlenmerest From the root dinlen– "to rest."
استثمار istismar*istismar sömürgecolony From the root sömür– "to exploit."[2]
إستثقال istisḳālistiskal aşağılamaabasement
استثناء istisnâ'*istisna aykırıexception
اشارت işaret*işaret göstergeindicator From the root göster– "to show."[2]
اشتغال iştigâliştigal uğraş, uğraşıoccupation
اشتراك iştirâk*iştirak ortaklıkassociation
اتمام itmam*itmam tamamlamacompletion From the adjective tam "complete, full."
ايضاح izâh*izah açıklamaclarification From the root aç– "to open."
ازدواج izdivâcizdivaç evlilikmarriage From the noun ev "house."
قابليه kâbiliyet*kabiliyet yetenek, yetitalent, ability From the root yet– "to reach."[2]
قادر kader*kader yazgıfate From the root yaz– "to write."[2]
قفة qaffa*kafa başhead
كافي kâfi*kâfi yeterenough From the root yet– "to be enough."[2]
قاعده kaide*kaide tabanfloor
كائنات kâ'inât*kâinat evrenuniverse
قلب kalb*kalp yürekheart
قانون kânûn*kanun yasalaw Borrowed from Mongolian[2].
قانون اساسى kanunuesasikanunuesasi anayasaconstitution (law) Literally "mother law."
قافيه kâfiye*kafiye uyakrhyme From the root uy– "to comply, fit."
كانون اول kânûn-ı evvel aralıkDecember "Aralık" was adopted during the drafting of the 1945 Constitution because it occurred in the text. With the new name for December it became the subject of jokes on the theme that the transition from December to January—Aralıktan Ocağa—now meant passing through the gap into the fire[2].
كانون ثانی kânûn-ı sânî ocakJanuary "Ocak," the new name for January preserves the meaning of kânun "hearth."[2]
كلمه kelime*kelime sözcük, sözword Invented by Melih Cevdet Anday in 1958[2].
قرمز ghermez*kırmızı al**, kızılred The Arabic and the Turkish words are used in somewhat different contexts. kızıl is mostly used for red hair.
قسم kısm*kısım bölümpart From the root böl– "to divide."
كتاب ketab*kitap betik**book From the Old Turkic root biti– "to write," which is a loanword from Chinese word , meaning "brush."[2]
كفر kufr*küfür sövme**curse From the root söv– "to swear, curse."[2]
قوة kuvvet*kuvvet güç, erkpower, force En physique, l'ancien mot est utilisé pour « force » et le nouveau pour « puissance ».
كُلِّيَتْ külliyet*külliyet tümwhole
كرة küre*küre yuvar**sphere
لطيفه lâtîfelatife şakajoke The new word is also of Arabic origin (from the word şaḳā (شقاء)), meaning "pity, being unfortunate"
لسان lisân*lisan dillanguage dil means both tongue in the physical sense and language, while "lisan" only means tongue in the language sense.
لغات lûġatlügat sözlükdictionary
لزوملو lüzûmlu*lüzumlu gereklinecessary
ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻒ me‘ārif*maarif eğitimeducation
معاش maʻâş*maaş aylıksalary From the noun ay "moon, month"
معباد maʻbed*mabet tapınaktemple From the root tap– "to worship."
مادة maddî*maddî özdeksel**material, materialistic The Turkish word is exclusively used in the context of philosophy.
مفصل mafsalmafsal eklemligament The old word is used for "hinge" (non-anatomical).
مغدور mağdûr*mağdur kıygın**wronged, injured The new word is almost never used.
مغلوبيات maʻlubiyyat*mağlubiyet yenilgidefeat From the root yen– "to defeat."
محلى mahalli*mahalli yöreselregional
محفوظ mahfuzmahfuz saklıhidden From the root sakla– "to hide."
مخلوق mahlûk*mahluk yaratıkcreature From the root yarat– "to create."
محصول mahsûl*mahsul ürünproduct The new word actually meant "weed".
مخصوص mahsûs*mahsus özgüpeculiar
مقصد maksad*, غايه gaye*, هدف hedef*maksat, gaye, hedef amaç, erekgoal
معقول maʻkûl*makul uygun, elverişlireasonable From the root uy– "to comply."
معنة maʻnah*mâna anlammeaning From the root anla– "to comprehend."
معنوي manevî*manevî tinsel**moral, spiritual The Turkish word is exclusively used in the context of philosophy.
مانع mâniʻ*mani engelobstacle
مصرف masraf*masraf gider, harcamacost From the root git– "to go, leave."
مطبعه matbaa*matbaa basım evi printing From the root bas– "to press."
معذرت mazeret*mazeret gerekçecorollary From the root gerek– "to need."
ﻣﺒﺪﺃ mebde’*mebde başlangıçbeginning
مجاز mecaz*, استعارة istiaremecaz iğretileme, eğretilememetaphor
مجبور mecbûr*mecbur zorunluobligation, obligatory Both the new and the old words can be used as either a noun or an adjective.
مجهول mechûl*meçhul bilinmeyenunknown From the root bil– "to know."
مدني madanni*medeni uygarcivil Borrowed from Uyghur.
مدنيات madanniyyat*medeniyet uygarlıkcivilization From the name of the Uyghur Uygur, who established an advanced civilization in Eastern Turkestan in the tenth to twelfth centuries[2].
مفهوم mefhûm*mefhum kavramconcept From the root kavra– "to grasp, understand."
مکروه mekrûh*mekruh iğrençdisgusting
مملکت memleket*memleket ülkecountry The old word is used for "one's native region"
ﻣﻨﺸﺄ menşe*menşe kökroot
مراسم merâsim*merasim törenceremony
مساحه mesaha*mesaha yüzölçümarea, measure of From the root ölç– "to measure."
مرثيه mersiyemersiye ağıtelegy
مسافه mesafe*mesafe uzaklıkdistance From the root uza– "to extend."[2]
مثانة mesane*mesane sidik kesesiurinary bladder
مثلا meselâ*mesela örneğinfor example
مسعود mesʻûd*mesut mutlu, sevinçlihappy
مسئوليات maʻsûliyyat*mesuliyet sorumlulukresponsibility
مشهور meşhûr*meşhur ünlüfamous From the noun ün "fame."
مشروبات meşrûbât*meşrubat içecekbeverage From the root iç– "to drink."
موقع mevkiʻ مكان mekân*mevki, mekân yer, konumlocation From the root kon– "to settle."[2]
موضع mevzi*mevzi bölgelocation From the root böl– "to divide."
ميدان meydân*, ساحه sâhameydan, saha alan**open area, plaza While the new word is used mainly in mathematics (as in the "area" of a triangle), it is seldom used with the same meaning of the old words except in compound words like havaalanı (airport), not hava meydanı (older version).
ميل meyl*meyil eğim, eğiliminclination From the root eğil– "to incline."
مزار mezar*mezar gömüt**cemetery From the root göm– "to bury."
منطقة mıntıkamıntıka bölgeregion From the root böl– "to divide."
ملت millet*millet ulusulus From the Mongolian noun uluş "confederation of people."[2]
مراث mirâs*miras kalıt**inheritance From the root kal– "to remain."[2]
مسافر misâfir*misafir konukguest From the root kon– "to settle."[2]
مثال misâl*misal örnekexample
مسکين miskîn*miskin uyuşuk, mıymıntılazy From the root uyuş– "to numb."
معامله muʻâmele*muamele davranıştreatment, behavior From the root davran– "to behave."
معما muʻammâmuamma bilmecepuzzle, trivia From the root bil– "to know."
معاصر muʻâsırmuasır çağdaş, güncelcontemporary
معاون muʻâvin*muavin yardımcıhelper
معجزه muʻcize*mucize tansık**miracle The new word is almost never used.
مغذي mugaddiimugaddi besleyicinourisher
مغالطه mugalatamugalata yanıltmacadeceptive statement From the root yanılt– "to mislead."
مغني، مغنيه muganni, muganniyemuganni,muganniye şarkıcısinger
مغايرة mugayeretmugayeret aykırılıkirregularity
مغاير mugayirmugayir aykırıirregular The old word has only remained as a legal term meaning "adverse".
مخابره muhaberemuhabere iletişim, iletişmecommunication From the root ilet– "to transmit."
مهاجرة muhaceretmuhaceret göçemigration From the root göç– "to move."
مهاجم muhacimmuhacim saldıran, saldırıcıattacker, offender From the root saldır– "to attack."
مهاجر muhacirmuhacir göçmenimmigrant From the root göç– "to move."
محدب muhaddepmuhaddep dış bükeyconvex From the root bük– "to bend."
محافظة muhafaza*muhafaza korumaconservation From the root koru– "to protect."
محافظ muhafızmuhafız koruyucuprotector From the root koru– "to protect."
محاكمه muhakeme*muhakeme yargılama, uslamlamajudgment, argumentation
مدة muddat*müddet süreduration From the root sür– "to last."
محقق muhakkak*muhakkak kesin(likle)certain(ly)
محقق muhakkikmuhakkik soruşturmacıinvestigator From the root sor– "to ask."
محال muhalmuhal olanaksızimpossible From the root ol– "to exist."
مخالفة muhallaffat*muhalefet karşıtlıkopposition From the adjective karşı "opposite."[2]
مخمن muhammenmuhammen oranlanan, ön görülenpre-determined
مخمس muhammesmuhammes beşgenpentagon From the noun beş "five."
محاربه muhârebe, حرب harbmuharebe, harp savaşwar
محارب muharipmuharip savaşçıwarrior
محرر muharrermuharrer yazılı, yazılmışwritten From the root yaz– "to write."[2]
محرك muharrikmuharrik kışkırtıcı, ayartıcıprovoker From the root kışkırt– "to provoke."
محاصره muhasaramuhasara kuşatmasiege From the root kuşat– "to encircle."[2]
محاسبه muhasebe*muhasebe saymanlıkaccounting, bookkeeping From the root say– "to count."[2]
محاسبجي muhasebeci*muhasebeci saymanaccountant, bookkeeper From the root say– "to count."[2]
محتمل muhtemel*muhtemel olasıpossible From the root ol– "to happen."
محتويات muhteviyyâtmuhteviyat içindekileringredients From the adjective "inside."
مقدس mukaddesmukaddes kutsalsacred
منتظم muntazam*muntazam düzgün, düzenlitidy From the root düz– "to align."[2]
مربع murabbaʻmurabba karesquare A loanword from the French carré.
معتدل muʻtedilmutedil ılım(lı)moderate(ly)
موفقيت muvaffakıyyetmuvaffakiyet başarısuccess From the root başar– "to succeed (in)."
مبالغه mübalâgamübalağa abartıexaggeration From the root abart– "to exaggerate."
مجادله mücâdele*mücadele çaba, uğraşendeavor
مجرد mücerritmücerrit soyutabstract From the root soy– "to strip."[2]
مدافعه müdâfaʻamüdafaa korumasustain, protect, defend From the root koru– "to protect."
مداخله müdâhale*müdahale karışmaintervention From the root karış– "to interfere, meddle with."
مُلَازِمْ mülazım*mülazım teğmenlieutenant From the Old Turkic teğ– "to touch," which Turkish retains as değ–.[2]
مدت müddet*müddet süreduration From the root sür– "to last."
مدركه mudrikemüdrike anlıkintellect (in psychology)
مؤدب mueddepmüeddep usluwell behaved, demure From the noun us "intelligence."
مؤلفات muelleffatmüellefat (yazılı) yapıt(written) piece From the root yap– "to make."
مؤلف، محرر muellif, muharrirmüellif, muharrir yazarwriter From the root yaz– "to write."
مؤمن muemmenmüemmen sağlanmışsecured From the adjective sağ "alive."
مؤنث muennesmüennes dişilfeminine
مؤسسه mu‘essesemüessese kurumfoundation From the root kur– "to set up." Kurum is recorded in Tarama Sözlüğü (1963-77) as occurring in two dictionaries from the fourteenth and eighteenth century[2].
مؤثر muessirmüessir dokunaklıtouching From the root dokun– "to touch."
مؤسس muessismüessis kurucufounder From the root kur– "to set up."[2]
مفكره mufekkrirehmüfekkire düşünce gücüthought capacity From the root düşün– "to think."
مفرد mufrettmüfret tekilsingular From the adjective tek "single."
مفلس muflismüflis batkınone that's gone bankrupt From the root bat– "to sink."
مهم mühim*mühim önemliimportant From the noun önem "importance."
مؤمن mü‘minmümin inanan, inançlıbeliever From the root inan– "to believe."
مناسبت münâsebet*münasebet ilişkirelation From the Old Turkic root il– "to tie loosely" and "to touch."[2]
منتخب müntahib*müntahib seçmenvoter From the root seç– "to choose."
مراجعت mürâcaʻatmüracaat başvuruapplication From the root başvur– "to apply."
مركب mürekkebmürekkep birleşmiş, birleşikink From the root birleş– "to unite."
مرتب murrettipmürettip dizgicitype setter From the root diz– "to align."[2]
مسابقه müsâbakamüsabaka karşılaşmamatch, competition From the adjective karşı "opposite."[2]
مسامحه müsâmahamüsamaha hoşgörütolerance From the root gör– "to see."
مُسَاو۪ي müsavi*müsavi eşitequal From the noun "pair."
مسدس müseddes*müseddes altıgenhexagon From the noun altı "six."
مستهجن müstehcen*müstehcen uygunsuzinappropriate, obscene From the root uy– "to comply."[2]
مستملك mustamlakmüstemleke sömürgecolony (exploitee) From the root sömür– "to exploit."[2]
مسوده müsvedde*müsvedde taslakdraft
مشابه، مماثل muşabbih, mumassilmüşabih, mümasil benzersimilar From the root benze– "to resemble."
مشبهات muşşabbahatmüşabehet benzerliksimilarity From the root benze– "to resemble."
مشخص müşahhasmüşahhas somutconcrete (in concept, the opposite of abstract)
مشكل müşkülmüşkül çetin**difficult
مشرك muşrikmüşrik çoktanrıcıpolytheist
مشتق müştakmüştak türevderivative Borrowed from Kazakh, where verbs end not in –mek/–mak, but in –v[2].
مشتكي muştekimüşteki yakınan, sızlananone who complains, whiner
مشتملات muştemilatmüştemilat eklentiattachment, appandage From the root ekle– "to add."
مشترك muşterek*müşterek ortakpartner From the noun orta "middle."[2]
مشتري muşteri*müşteri alıcı, alımcıcustomer From the root al– "to buy."[2]
مطالعه mütâlâʻamütalâa düşüncethought From the root düşün– "to think."
متارکه mütârekemütareke antlaşmaarmistice From the noun ant "oath."[2]
متعدد muteadditmüteaddit birçoka lot, many
متفن muteaffinmüteaffin kokuşukmalodorous From the root kok– "to smell."
متعهد muteahhid*müteahhit üstencicontractor
متعاقب muteakibmüteakip sonra, ardındanafter, thereafter From the adjective arka "behind."
متعاليه mutealiyemütealiye deneyüstücülüktranscendentalism
متعلق muteallikmüteallik ilişkin, ilgilirelated (to) From the Old Turkic root il– "to tie loosely" and "to touch."[2]
متعمم muteammimmüteammim yaygınlaşmış, genelleşmişsomething that has widespread From the root yay– "to radiate."[2]
متعارفه mutearifemütearife belit**axiom
متبقي mutebakimütebaki kalanremaining From the root kal– "to remain."
متبدل mutebeddilmütebeddil değişen, kararsızone that changes, undecided From the root değiş– "to change."
متبسم mutebessimmütebessim gülümseyen, güleçone that smiles From the root gül– "to laugh."
متجنس mutecanismütecanis bağdaşıkhomogenous
متجاوز mutecavizmütecaviz saldırganattacker From the root saldır– "to attack."
متدين mutedeyyinmütedeyyin dindarreligious Borrowed from Persian, where it means "owner of religion."
متأثر muteessirmüteessir üzüntülüsad (person) From the root üz– "to aggrieve."
متفكر mutefekkirmütefekkir düşünürthinker, intellectual From the root düşün– "to think."
متفرق müteferrikmüteferrik dağınıkuntidy From the root dağıt– "to distribute."
متحمل mutehammilmütehammil dayanıklıdurable
متحرك muteharrikmüteharrik devingen, oynarmobile
مُحْتَرَمْ muhterem*muhterem saygıdeğerhonorable
متخصص mütehassısmütehassıs uzmanexpert From the Old Turkic noun uz "skilled craftsman" and the intensive suffix "–man" in şişman "fat" and kocaman "huge."[2]
متشبث muteşşebbismüteşebbis girişimcientrepreneur From the root gir– "to enter."
متوازي mütevâzî*mütevazi alçakgönüllühumble
متوفى muteveffamüteveffa ölü, ölmüşmort From the root öl– "to die."
متفق muttefik*müttefik bağlaşık**allié From the root bağla– "to tie."[2]
مزايده muzayyadehmüzayede açık arttırmaauction
مزمن müzminmüzmin süreğenchronique From the root sür– "to last."
نادر nadir*, اندر ender*nadir, ender seyrekrare
نغمه nağmenağme ezgimélodie
ناقص nakıs*nakıs eksiminus
نصيحت nasîhat*nasihat öğütadvice, counsel
نظير nâzırnazır bakanministre
نفس nefes*nefes soluksouffle
نسيج nesiçnesiç dokumouchoir
نسل nesl*nesil kuşakgénération
نتيجه netîce*netice sonuçrésultat From the combination of old Turkic nouns son "end" and "latter."[2]
نزيف nezifnezif kanamahémorragie From the noun kan "blood"
نصف nısfnısıf yarı(m)moitié From the root yar– "to split."[2]
نهايت nihâyet*nihayet son(unda)fin(alement)
نكاح nikâh*nikâh düğünmariage In modern Turkish, nikâh is generally used for the wedding ceremony, while düğün is used for the wedding reception or party.
نسبت nisbet*nispet oranratio From the Old Turkic noun oran for "measure," "proportion" or "moderation."[2]
نطق nutk*nutuk söylevspeech Borrowed from Kazakh, where verbs end not in –mek/–mak, but in –v[2].
رفاه rafāh*refah gönençprosperity
رغما ragmen*rağmen karşındespite, in spite of From the adjective karşı "opposite."[2]
رئيس re'îsreis başkanpresident
رأي rey*rey oyvote
رجعت ricat*ricat çekilmeretreat From the root çek– "to pull."[2]
روح ruh*ruh tin**spirit The Turkish word is almost never used, except in the context of philosophy.
رطوبه rutûbet*rutubet yaşlık, ıslaklıkmoisture From the adjective yaş "dank."
رؤيا rü'ya*rüya düşdream
سادهّ sade, سائد sa'aid*sade yalınplain The Turkish word is rarely used.
صفحة safha*safha evre, aşamastage, phase
صفراء safra*safra ödbile
ساحل sahil*sahil kıyıcoast
صاحب sahip*sahip iye**owner The Turkish word is seldom used; however, it is commonly used in the context of grammar when describing the possessive suffix (iyelik eki)
سطح sathsatıh yüzeysurface From the noun yüz "face."
سياره sayyâreseyyare araba, taşıtcar Araba is the outdated expression for "car" in Arabic. The current word in Arabic for car is seyyara but in Turkish seyyar, means "transportable" or given to travel.
سبب sebeb*sebep nedenreason
سفاره safaratsefaret büyükelçilikembassy
سلامت selâmetselamet esenlikhealth, soundness
سما semâsema göksky
سنه sene*sene yılyear
صحت sıhhatsıhhat sağlıkhealth From the adjective sağ "alive."
سحر sihr*sihir büyümagic
صحبت sohbet*sohbet söyleşichat From the root söyle– "to say."
سؤال su'âlsual soruquestion From the root sor– "to ask."
صلح sulhsulh barışpeace
صنع sunîsuni yapayartificial From the root yap– "to make."[2]
سکوت sükûtsükût sessizliksilence From the noun ses "voice."
شاهد şâhid*şahit tanıkwitness From the root tanı– "to recognize."
شاعر şair*şair ozanpoet
شعير şaîr*şair arpabarley
شرق şarkşark doğueast From the root doğ– "to be born."[2]
شرط şart*şart koşulcondition Invented in 1947 by Nurullah Ataç[2].
شمال şimâlşimal kuzeynorth From the noun kuz "side of a mountain out of reach of the sun." Kuzey was also used in some Anatolian dialects, meaning sunless place.[2]
ﺷﻌﺎﻉ şu‘ā‘)*şua ışınray, gleam
تعلق taalluktaalluk ilinticonnection, relation From the Old Turkic root il– "to tie loosely" and "to touch."[2]
طبقه tabaqqa *tabaka katmanlayer From the noun kat "floor."
طبيعت ṭabîʻat*tabiat doğanature From the root doğ– "to be born."
طبيعى ṭabîʻî*tabii doğalnatural From the root doğ– "to be born."
تعبير، افاده taʻbîr, ifâde*tabir, ifade deyiş**narration
ṭâbiyet*tâbiyet uyruk**nationality
تحليل tahlil*tahlil inceleme(laboratory) test (as in medicine)
تخمين tahmin*tahmin kestirim**guess, prediction From the root kes– "to cut."
تعقيب taʻkib*takip izlem**follow-up From the root izle– "to watch."
طلب ṭaleb*talep istekrequest, demand, wish From the root iste– "to demand, request."
طلبه ṭalebetalebe öğrencistudent (plural of طالب ṭâlib, "seeker" [of knowledge]) From the Old Turkic root igid– "to feed."[2]
تعمیم tâmîm*tâmîm genelgecircular, notice From the adjective genel "general."
تعمير taʻmîr*, تعديلات taʻdîlât*tamir, tadilat onarımrepair, renovation From the root onar– "to repair."
طرف taraf*taraf yanside
ترصدات tarassut*tarassut gözetlemeobservation
تاريخ tarih*tarih günay**date (in time) The Arabic word tarih also means "history". The Turkish word günay (literally meaning "day-month") is rarely used.
تسلط tasalluttasallut sarkıntılık(sexual) harassment From the root sark– "to dangle from."
تصور tasavvurtasavvur canlandırma, tasarıimagine
تصديق tasdîk*tasdik onayapprove
تصحيح tashîhtashih düzeltmecorrection From the adjective düz "even, flat."
تصوير tasvîr*tasvir betimlemedescription
طياره tayyâretayyare uçakairplane From the root uç– "to fly."
توصيه tavsiye*tavsiye salıkadvice
تعادل teʻâdülteadül denklikequivalence From the adjective denk "equal."
تعامل teʻâmülteamül tepkime, davranışreaction, behavior From the root davran– "to behave."
تبسم tebessümtebessüm gülümsemesmile From the root gül– "to laugh."
تبديل tebdîltebdil değişiklikchange From the root değiş– "to change."
تبريك tebrîk*tebrik kutlamacongratulate From the root kutla– "to celebrate."
تجربه tecbüre*tecbüre deneyexperiment From the root dene– "to try."
تجلى tecellîtecelli belirmeemerge, appear
تجسم tecessümtecessüm görünmeappearance, manifestation From the root gör– "to see."
تجربة tecrübe*tecrübe deneyimexperience From the root dene– "to attempt."[2]
تجهيزات techîzât*teçhizat donanımequipment
تداوى tedavi*tedavi sağaltım**therapy
تدبير tedbîr*tedbir önlemprecaution From the root önle– "to prevent."
ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺴﺎﺕ tedrіsāt)*tedrisat öğretimteaching
تأثر te'essürteessür üzüntüagony From the root üz– "to aggrieve."
تكامل tekâmültekamül evrim, başkalaşımmaturation, metamorphosis, evolution
تقاعد tekaʻüdtekaüt emeklilikretirement
تكفل tekeffültekeffül yükümlenmestanding surety
تكليف teklîf*teklif öneriproposal From the root öner– "to propose."
تكرار tekrar*tekrar yineagain
تلاش telâş*telaş tasa, kaygıworry
تَمْي۪يزْ temyiz*temyiz yargıtay Borrowed from Chagatai.
تناسب tenâsübtenasüp uyumcongruity From the root uy– "to conform."
تنبيه tenbîh*tembih uyarıwarning From the root uyar– "to warn."
ﺗﺮﻗّﻰ teraḳḳі*terakki ilerlemeprogress
ترجمه tercüme*tercüme çeviritranslation
تردد terreddut*tereddüt duraksamahesitancy From the root dur– "to halt, stop."
ترتيب tertip*tertip düzenorder, tidiness From the root düz– "to align."
تأثير tesir*tesir etkieffect From the root et– "to do."
تسلى teselli*teselli avunmaconsole From the root avun– "to console oneself."
تشخيص teşhis*teşhis tanıdiagnosis From the root tanı– "to recognize."[2]
تَشْك۪يلَاتْ teşkilat*teşkilat örgütorganization From the noun örgü "plait."[2]
تشكيل teshkilteşkil etmek oluşturmakto constitute
تشرين اول teşrîn-i evvel ekimOctober From the root ek– "to harvest."
تشرين ثانی teşrîn-i sânî kasımNovember
تشويق teşvik *teşvik özendirme, kışkırtma(providing) incentive, provocation
تدقيق tetkit*tetkit araştırmaresearch
تولد tevellüd*tevellüd doğumbirth From the root doğ– "to be born."
تذكار tezkar*tezkar anılmaya değerworth-mentioning From the root an– "to call to mind."[2]
تجارت ticaret*ticaret alımsatımbusiness
عنصر unsur*unsur öğeconstituent, element
عنوان unvan*ünvan san(professional) title
اسلوب uslup*üslup biçem**style
وعد vaʻd*vaat sözpromise (noun)
واقعه vakʻâ*vaka olayevent From the root ol– "to happen."
وقور vakûrvakur ağır başlıdignified The Turkish expression literally means "heavy headed".
وصف vasf*vasıf nitelikfeature, quality
واسطه vasıtavasıta araçvehicle
وسيع vâsivâsi enginvast
وطن vatan*vatan yurthomeland
وظيفه vazîfe*vazife görevtask, mission
و ve*ve ileand From the Old Turkic root il– "to tie loosely" and "to touch."[2]
وهم vehmvehim kuruntuapprehension, fancy
ولاية vilâyet*vilayet ilprovince
تفسير tefsîr*tefsir yoruminterpretation, analysis, comment
ضبط dzabt*zabıt tutanakminute of proceeding, trial From the root tut– "to hold."[2]
ضمير zamîr*zamir adıl**pronoun From the noun ad "noun."
زاويه zaviyezaviye açıangle From the root aç– "to open."
ﺫﻯ ﻗﻴﻤﺖ ẕі-ḳiymet)*zikıymet değerlivaluable

Débat pédagogique en Turquie

Le Conseil national turc de l'éducation, composé majoritairement de proches du président Recep Tayyip Erdoğan et de son gouvernement, exprime en le souhait que l'apprentissage de l'alphabet ottoman, abandonné dans le cadre des réformes imposées par Kemal en 1928, devienne obligatoire dans les lycées religieux et optionnel dans les autres[3]. Selon Erdoğan, qui soutient ce projet, l'abandon de l'alphabet ancien est comparable à une coupure de la « veine jugulaire » que représente pour les Turcs la compréhension de leur histoire et de leur civilisation[4]. Il présente cette réforme envisagée comme un « retour aux racines turques »[3] et affirme que l'ottoman ancien « sera enseigné quoi qu’en disent ses détracteurs »[5].

Ses critiques, en revanche, voient dans ce projet une tentative « d'islamisation » des lycées et de remise en question de la sécularisation et de la modernisation de la Turquie[6].

Références

  1. (tr) wikisource:tr:Kanun-u Esasi#Tebaai Devleti Osmaniyenin Hukuku Umumiyesi : « Madde 8 - Devleti Osmaniye tabîyetinde bulunan efradın cümlesine her hangi din ve mezhepten olur ise olsun bilâ istisna Osmanlı tabir olunur ve Osmanlı sıfatı kanunen muayyen olan ahvale göre istihsal ve izae edilir. »
  2. Geoffrey Lewis, Turkish Grammar, Oxford, United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, , Second éd. (ISBN 0-19-870036-9)
  3. Solène Cordier, « Quelles sont les dernières atteintes à la laïcité en Turquie ? », Le Monde, (lire en ligne)
  4. (en) Ishaan Tharoor, « Why Turkey’s president wants to revive the language of the Ottoman Empire », Washington Post, (lire en ligne)
  5. Marie Jego, « La « nouvelle Turquie » de Recep Tayyip Erdogan », Le Monde, (lire en ligne)
  6. (en) Ceylan Yeginsu, « Turks Feud Over Change in Education », New York Times, (lire en ligne)

Bibliographie

  • Nicolas Vatin, « De l'osmanli au turc de Turquie, les aventures d'une langue », Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, vol. 50, no 1, (lire en ligne)

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Liens externes

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